This classification covers colleges, universities, seminaries, and professional schools offering academic courses and granting academic degrees. The minimum requirement for admission is a high school diploma or equivalent general academic training.
611310 (Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools)
The U.S. higher educational system has long been the envy of the developed world. It plays a critical role in U.S. social and economic life and is a cornerstone of the nation's competitiveness on the world stage. By the twenty-first century, U.S. colleges and universities were increasingly coming to resemble traditional business entities by streamlining operations and aggressively competing for students and finances as a way of maintaining their vitality.
Colleges and universities are institutions of higher learning that admit postsecondary students for education and training in a vast number of disciplines. No central governing body oversees the administration of these institutions, although governments do contribute financial aid in the form of loans and grants to both students and schools. Private corporations donate substantial sums of money to colleges, universities, seminaries, and professional schools in the United States, supplementing public subsidies as a way of investing in research and development, and traditionally recruit employees from these institutions. Although primarily mandated to impart skills and knowledge to students, many colleges and universities are also major research institutions and have made significant contributions to medicine, technology, engineering, and a number of other fields.
Almost 12 million students were enrolled in public colleges and universities during the 2000-01 school year. In addition, nearly four million attended private schools. There were a total of 4,182 postsecondary schools in the United States, of which community, junior, and technical colleges accounted for 1,732. About 1.8 million students were enrolled in graduate programs in 1999, a figure that escalated rapidly in the early and mid-1990s after holding steady around 1.3 million for more than a decade. Students tended to gravitate toward very large or very small schools. While 40 percent of institutions had a student body of less than 1,000 students in 1999, they represented only 4 percent of all postsecondary students. Conversely, whereas only 10 percent of colleges and universities had more than 10,000 students, they enrolled about half of the nation's total student population.
U.S. colleges and universities enjoy significant endowment funding. In 2000, the greatest beneficiaries included prestigious research universities such as Harvard University, with assets of $18.8 billion; Yale University, with $10.1 billion; the University of Texas System, with $10 billion; Stanford University, with $8.6 billion; and Princeton University, with $8.4 billion.
Federal studies show that the nation's public colleges and universities recorded more than $170 billion in expenditures in 2000-01, whereas expenditures for private schools were nearly $110 billion. In recent years, approximately 1 percent of all postsecondary institutions were under federal control; state governments were responsible for about 28 percent, independent religious institutions for 25 percent, and independent nonprofit organizations for 20 percent. The majority of college campuses are located in small towns, closely followed by urban settings and suburban areas, with the fewest located in rural areas.
Tuition rose steadily throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. Private four-year colleges and universities demand the highest annual tuition, followed by independent two-year institutes; public four-year institutions come next, and two-year public schools charge the lowest tuition. In the early 2000s average tuition ranged from $1,338 at public community colleges to $15,531 at private four-year universities. Moreover, private universities have experienced the fastest rise in prices, growing 27 percent between 1991 and 2001. Tuition at public universities increased 23 percent over the same period.
In 1999 about 28 percent of all college and university students were minorities, a substantial increase over the 16 percent in 1976. This trend is most notable among Hispanic and Asian students; Asian and Pacific students tripled their presence over this period, accounting for 6 percent of the student body in 1999, whereas Hispanic students more than doubled their proportion to 9 percent. African American students accounted for about 11 percent of all students. Native Americans were the least represented minority group with enrollments averaging 1 percent on all campuses. Meanwhile, the number of women enrolled in higher education rose 13 percent between 1989 and 1999, whereas male enrollment increased 5 percent over that period. By 1999, female enrollment totaled 8.3 million and male enrollment had reached 6.5 million.
Colleges and universities are either public or private. Public institutions are able to secure funding from government sources, whereas private institutions rely on tuition and private donations to operate. Universities are different from colleges in that they provide a greater number of areas of study, are larger in size, and are more involved in research activities. Universities also grant graduate, doctoral, and professional degrees in addition to undergraduate degrees, which colleges may or may not bestow.
The way a college or university is structured is in large part determined by the needs of the population it serves. Underscoring the objectives and operating strategies of every U.S. institution of higher learning is the fundamental belief that every interested and capable high school graduate should have the opportunity to attend postsecondary school. This philosophy has distinguished higher education in the United States and serves as a central tenet of its structure and organization.
Population growth, particularly the significant growth of the college-age population in the 1960s and 1970s, put increased pressure on institutions of higher learning. Private and public donations also increased the number and diversity of programs offered, as did the quality of teachers and technology available. In all, the landscape of the industry is remarkable for its sheer diversity and its ability to meet the needs of students, whether they seek a well-rounded liberal arts education or hands-on training in the most advanced computer sciences.
In terms of broad structure, coordinating boards are the primary feature in most colleges and universities. These boards, some elected, others appointed, may govern only senior institutions; others may govern all of the institutions in a state; still others are charged with compiling and analyzing data that is related to enrollment, curricula, staff appointments, institution investments and disbursements, and other issues related to the administration and management of the schools. Some states employ statewide governing boards charged with overseeing specific or all institutions of higher learning. An additional administrative arm of colleges and universities is voluntary consortia, both public and private. These advisory and governing bodies address such areas as faculty composition, teaching facilities, and library materials.
The development of higher education in America had its genesis as far back as 1636, when the first colleges in the colonies began to take shape. These institutions had close ties to religious organizations, a condition that remained prevalent until early in the twentieth century when a number of these universities were secularized in administration and curriculum. (Many American colleges and universities, however, continue to cultivate a relationship with religious bodies.) During the latter stages of the eighteenth century, professional studies were first incorporated into these schools.
Harvard, the first institution of higher learning in America, was founded in 1636. The first colonial colleges attempted to foster the advancement of learning and the training of clergymen. These colleges offered curricula that featured classical studies such as rhetoric, mathematics, and logic. It was not until the emergence of the university that emphasis was placed on the total education of the individual, and the liberal arts education, with its emphasis on diversity of subject matter, took a prominent role in higher learning.
Professional schools, often referred to as technical or polytechnical schools, emerged alongside the growing popularity of liberal arts colleges. Professional schools were intended to provide students with "practical skills" that would prepare them for employment in a specialized field when they graduated. Prototypes of these applied science institutions included the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and Cooper Union and agricultural schools in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. So successful were the experimental professional schools that traditional institutions that had ignored practical skills training began incorporating them into their programs. The federal government also recognized the utility of such training and indicated its approval by requiring institutions participating in the Morrill Land-Grant College Act of 1862 to include agriculture and the mechanic arts in their curricula.
A key piece of legislation in the history of American higher education was the passage of the Morrill Act in 1862, which permitted public lands to be appropriated by individual states in order to establish state agricultural and mechanical schools, forerunners of the modern state university.
The Land-Grant College Act of 1862 granted to each state 30,000 acres of land (or its equivalent) for each senator and representative in Congress. This allowed colleges and universities, particularly those that specialized in training students in agriculture and mechanical arts, enormous growth potential. The land-grant colleges and universities benefited the curriculum and overall structure of higher education in America in general; most notably, states realized the practical and long-term benefit of continued underwriting of institutions of higher learning. Equally as important, the breadth of subject matter available at these schools became increasingly diverse and wide-ranging as the institutions improved and expanded their faculties.
Normal schools, which traditionally trained teachers, came into existence around 1840. As the training of elementary and secondary instructors became more specialized, teachers' colleges emerged and eventually became a vibrant part of the industry.
It was during the mid-1800s that the states began to exert more influence on colleges and universities and promote them as private, nonsectarian institutions of learning. State funding and development of colleges and universities heralded the end of the era of the public college and ushered in the industry of colleges and universities in its present form. The Universities of Georgia (1785), North Carolina (1789), and Vermont (1791) were the first state-chartered schools. This trend escalated dramatically around the time of the Civil War, until state colleges and universities became the standard route to higher education across the nation. It was not until late in the nineteenth century, however, that states began to assume financial responsibility on an ongoing basis for colleges and universities. It was also at this time that the municipal college or university came into being. These institutions were managed by city governments and partially funded by municipal taxes.
So specialized had the industry become that special colleges for women and for black Americans began operating in the nineteenth century. The overall trend in higher education, however, has been toward coeducation. Today, of course, admittance discrimination based on gender, race, or religion is outlawed. Still, there are about 130 single-sex colleges (men-or women-only) in the United States today, and there are more than 100 historically black colleges.
Universities, as institutions of higher learning and scholarship, became fully entrenched after the founding of Johns Hopkins in 1876. Truly the renaissance in higher education in America, it was during this period as well that Yale, Columbia, Harvard, and the Universities of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and California opened their doors. Endowments and grants from major corporations also established these institutions as the focus of corporate investment. With such fiscal leverage at their disposal, these universities quickly became forces to be reckoned with, both in the academic arena as well as in the overall economy. Research and the training of highly specialized professionals positioned the nation's universities as one of the primary resources big business and government relied on for a constant supply of technology and skilled labor. In addition, communities where colleges and universities were located became increasingly dependent on those institutions for the community's economic health and well-being.
Higher education became an even more dominant part of the American experience after World War II. Virtually anyone who qualified for the G.I. Bill of Rights and was armed with the necessary academic requirements could gain entrance to a college or university. Financial subsidies from the government increased attendance enormously, and postsecondary institutions realized substantial growth in revenues. The surge in the popularity and fiscal growth of these institutions can be appreciated by comparing enrollment statistics: The enrollment in the fall semester of 1950 for all students in institutions of higher education was 2.6 million; in 1990 that number had increased to 13.8 million. Industry analysts predict this trend will continue.
The exponential growth of two-year trade schools, or junior or community colleges, is indicative of the diversity that characterizes higher education in the 20th century. Staggeringly popular since the middle of this century, these two-year programs, according to American Universities and Colleges, enrolled 217,572 students in 527 institutions in 1950-51; by the 1998-99 academic year, enrollment totaled approximately 5.4 million in more than 1,600 institutions.
As the twenty-first century approached, colleges and universities emphasized imparting practical skills and knowledge to as wide and diverse a population as possible. The technological and computer revolution supplanted the traditional liberal arts education, stressing the importance of skills and knowledge that make students marketable in a computerized age. There has also been a strong emphasis placed on removing financial and racial barriers to a higher education. Government loan programs and equal opportunity initiatives have been very successful in these areas.
The higher educational system faced the twenty-first century with a wide range of challenges and some significant transformations in the works. Many colleges and universities were financially troubled. Operating costs continued to soar in all areas—scholarships, administration, student services, faculty, research, and maintenance. As a result, tuition and room and board costs grew, typically higher than the rate of overall inflation. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, most universities attempted to mitigate these pressures by cutting expenses at the margins, such as maintenance and staff cuts, while raising tuition prices and boosting fund-raising efforts. An increasingly competitive industry, colleges and universities found that in order to maintain a competitive edge in this crowded field, they would need to begin thinking strategically in the manner of a typical corporation.
Appropriately, then, the presence of corporate America has grown highly visible on United States campuses. Marketing contracts, research funding, and other such deals between schools and powerful business skyrocketed in the mid-and late 1990s. Pennsylvania State University, for example, entered into a contract with Pepsi-Cola Co. whereby Pepsi agreed to donate $14 million to the university over a 10-year period in exchange for granting the soft drink company exclusive rights to market and sell its products on the school's campuses. Coca-Cola, Nike Inc., Rite Aid Corp., and a host of other firms have made similar deals with colleges and universities across the country. Other corporations have donated money to build academic facilities on campuses in exchange for the right to occupy parts of the buildings for their own operations.
Moreover, as businesses invested more heavily in colleges and universities, curricula became increasingly tailored to gear students toward careers with the firms donating the money. The National Science Foundation in 1998 facilitated more than 20 partnerships between businesses and community colleges designed to ready students for jobs in the high-technology sector. As schools compete to retain top-notch programs to draw the highest caliber of students, they are expected to rely more on corporate investment to propel their research programs.
As postsecondary education came to adopt the traditional business model, institutions met with inflated pressures to streamline their operations and eliminate bureaucracies. By the end of the 1990s, one of the most notable examples of cost cutting was in the realm of faculty. Whereas traditionally colleges and universities prized the tenure status of professors, which guarantees permanent employment, thereby allowing professors to concentrate on research, by the late 1990s tenure itself was under attack. Critics complained that tenure encouraged professors to diminish productivity and lose sight of their teaching responsibilities. However, cost pressures were the most widely recognized explanation for the decreased emphasis on tenured faculty. The temptation to register savings by filling vacancies with part-time faculty proved very powerful through the mid-and late 1990s.
The proliferation of qualified teachers has made the transition toward part-time, or adjunct, faculty especially attractive. The large potential employment pool from which departments and administrators can draw has resulted in a tremendous market for low-cost part-time teachers. The tendency toward fiscal austerity is most marked in the humanities and other liberal arts programs. These conditions do not bode well for the current record numbers of students enrolled in graduate programs in these areas. The number of adjunct faculty members leaped 30 percent between 1991 and 1995; over the longer term, the use of part-time teachers escalated 266 percent between 1970 and 1995, during which time the number of full-time faculty members declined 49 percent. A total of 10,732 new full-time faculty appointments were made in 1996, down 25 percent from 1989. By 1998, 45 percent of all faculty at U.S. postsecondary schools were part-time; among community colleges, that figure jumped to 63 percent.
By the late 1990s, efforts to organize adjunct faculty members were intensifying in an effort to gain some leverage throughout the higher education system, including demand for health benefits. Adjuncts typically were remunerated according to the number of credit hours they taught each semester, usually amounting to between $1,200 and $2,000 for a regular three-credit course. This usually translated into annual earnings of less than $12,000 per year. About 70 percent of part-time teachers, therefore, supplemented their income with other employment, which they had to balance with recurrent job-application filings for their next teaching position. It was not uncommon for adjunct faculty to commute between positions at two or even three schools in a localized region.
Tuition. As a whole, tuition rose twice the rate of inflation in the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, tuition costs rose about 4 percent annually. This trend held true for all types of postsecondary institutions. For instance, the average annual at a four-year private institution was $13,664 during the 1997-98 academic year, compared to $10,994 in 1993-94 and $8,120 during 1984-85. Likewise, four-year public institutions cost $3,111 in 1997-98, up from $2,543 in 1993-94 and $1,748 in 1984-85. When combined with room and board prices, the total basic expenses at private schools reached $18,745 in 1997-98, compared with $6,788 at public institutions. These costs do not include books and supplies, health insurance, and personal expenses, which includes traveling between school and home. At public community colleges, tuition averaged $1,501 in 1997-98, up from $1,114 in 1993-94.
According to a March 1997 Time magazine special investigation by Erik Larson, tuition hikes can be attributed to high growth and expansion in the 1950s and 1960s, the slowing of federal funding in the mid-1970s, the rising energy costs of the late 1970s, high inflation in the 1970s and 1980s, and a phenomenon called the "Chivas Regal effect" in the 1980s, in which universities and parents began to equate higher tuition with higher educational quality, especially among the very competitive Ivy League schools. In the 1990s, financial aid and the expense of keeping up with technological advances were among the reasons for rising costs.
Pressure caused tuition hikes to slow down. Indeed, some Ivy League schools may have lost many top-notch students who were unable to afford or unwilling to pay exorbitant tuition costs. In addition, the financial-aid process grew increasingly convoluted. Still, since the 1980s a college education has been perceived to be a necessity, due to the significantly increased value an employee commands on the job market if in possession of a college degree. By the late 1990s, a college diploma translated into an average of 52 percent in additional wages when compared with an applicant with only a high school diploma. Moreover, real wages in some sectors, such as certain manufacturing fields, were actually lower than their 1960 level for those with only a high school education. Those with professional degrees, such as legal, medical, or business certificates, tend to garner the highest salaries, followed by doctoral and master degrees. As job security diminishes throughout the economy, moreover, a degree from a prestigious university is increasingly valued as an insurance policy against downsizing layoffs.
During the late 1990s, the federal government underwrote about 72 percent of the approximately $60 billion in financial aid benefits offered annually by federal, state, institutional, and private bodies. Lower-income students and families received assistance in paying for higher education through Pell Grants and Hope Scholarship tax credits. For adult students, moreover, the Lifelong Learning tax credit supplemented employment income while they retrained to upgrade their skills.
The Student Body. The composition of the student body has changed dramatically. In 1970 women made up 41 percent of the college and university student body. By 1998 this figure had increased to more than 53 percent. Minority enrollment has escalated as well. Moreover, an increasing number of minority high school students were pursuing college degrees by enrolling in college preparatory classes in secondary schools. Observers note that individuals with parents who attended colleges were far more likely to attend college themselves.
Racial and ethnic demographics underwent some interesting shifts in the 1990s. Although African Americans have come to enjoy nearly proportional enrollment in postsecondary education, the National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education reported that enrollment at historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) rose 11 percent between 1990 and 1998; notably, however, white enrollment at these institutions increased 16 percent during this period, whereas African American enrollment rose 6 percent. Most of this growth, analysts surmised, was due to the schools' lower average tuition cost ($6,600) when compared to other private schools, as well as the expanding number of degree offerings at HBCUs. Those schools, meanwhile, have greatly intensified their recruitment efforts in an effort to more readily meet their financial needs and, of course, to attract the best students.
Diversity has become key to the college curriculum. With the rising presence of minority students on college campuses has come the demand for more ethnic studies and foreign-language courses, as well as minority instructors. According to the National Center for Education Statistics and the Asian-American Studies Program at Cornell University, in 1996 about 90 of 2,200 four-year colleges in the United States offered majors in African American studies, 20 in Latino studies, 17 in Asian American studies, and 12 in Native American studies. Some conservatives challenge the academic legitimacy of these courses, fearing they will de-emphasize the core curriculum, whereas supporters question the assumptions that kept such studies out of the traditional curriculum and note that students can only benefit by diversifying their range of knowledge. At any rate, students of all races find ethnic studies popular, and often these classes have long waiting lists. Moreover, many businesses emphasize the growing need for greater cultural awareness as the business community grows more international in character.
Most institutions of higher learning attempted to tailor their programs according to the needs of students who would be job hunting into the twenty-first century. Land-grant universities in particular were being urged to combine vocational training with general education. Throughout the country, in fact, institutions are finding that applications for admission increase proportionate to their ability to offer instruction in areas such as advanced business training, computer sciences, health sciences, engineering, and other professions that will be looking for qualified graduates in the near future.
Indicative of the situation facing college students who will be seeking employment in an environment where many blue-collar and white-collar skills are becoming obsolete, vocational colleges and two-year trade schools have enjoyed increasing enrollments for a number of years. Since the 1960s and 1970s, these institutions have become a staple in most communities and show every indication of thriving well into the next century.
An important and increasingly popular component of the training these schools offer is upgrading and remedial education, which appeals to an American population that is discovering the value of re-education. Remedial skills training, taught in a wide variety of evening, weekend, summer, and other adult education programs, are appealing to students who might have enrolled in a liberal arts college 15 or 20 years ago.
Government Financial Assistance. Retraining and educational upgrading have become priorities of both federal and local governments in the United States. Both the technical revolution, particularly related to the computer industry, and the obsolescence of many white-collar, middle-and upper-management jobs have engendered a revolution in retraining in America. The public sector has been committing substantial amounts of money to the re-education of Americans who possess minimal training in the skills that are required in today's market. In 1998 federal funds for education and related activities amounted to contributions of more than $60 billion. Education analysts believe government will continue to support such efforts.
By the early 2000s, weak economic conditions had resulted in business closures, massive workforce reductions, and decreasing tax bases throughout the United States. This led to state budget shortfalls, which in turn affected funding for colleges and universities. During the boom years of the late 1990s, state appropriations for higher education averaged 7 to 8 percent. However, according to Educational Marketer , the Center for Higher Education at Illinois State University reported that funding for higher education at the state level increased a mere 1.2 percent in 2002-03, reaching almost $64 billion. Fourteen states cut funding, whereas another eight kept funding at the previous year's level or increased appropriations less than 1 percent. The most significant reductions occurred in Oregon, which implemented cuts of 11 percent, followed by 10 percent cutbacks in Missouri.
As government funding decreased, colleges and universities increased tuition. On average, tuition increased 10 percent in 2001-02 at public four-year institutions. At private schools, tuition and fee increases averaged about 6 percent. Tuition increases varied considerably from state to state. For example, Education Daily revealed that Massachusetts ramped up tuition by 24 percent, whereas New York only increased tuition by 2 percent. In all, some 16 states increased tuition more than 10 percent. In addition to paying higher tuition, students also faced financial aid cutbacks, with 17 states spending less on aid in 2002 than they did the previous year. Just as Massachusetts increased tuition by 24 percent, student aid levels also declined by that percentage in 2002. In addition to tuition hikes and less assistance, the stock market took its toll on college savings plans, putting increased strain on families with students near or of college age. According to Money , Morningstar indicated that funds in college savings plans fell 9 percent in 2002.
Looking ahead to the 2003-04 school year and beyond, experts were not hopeful for a quick turnaround. In its February 12, 2003, issue, Education Daily provided information from College Affordability in Jeopardy, a study conducted by the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education (NCPPHE). Calling the state budget situation the "worst fiscal news for public higher education institutions and their students in at least a decade," the NCPPHE commented that widespread economic uncertainty, recessions in nearly every state, and "the need to provide adequate funding for K-12 education and Medicaid before fretting about higher education" were all factors that foretold of more bad news for U.S. colleges and universities.
Approximately 2.7 million people are employed in U.S. colleges and universities. Faculty members, by far the largest and most visible component of the workforce, assume a number of diverse roles in higher education. Duties typically include teaching, appointment and promotion of colleagues, conferring tenure, curriculum planning, and student admission evaluations. Faculty usually operate within specific academic or administrative departments and are represented in faculties, senates, committees, and, in some cases, bargaining or arbitration units. Gender disparity continues to haunt the coveted tenure position; about 72 percent of male faculty had tenure in the late 1990s, compared with 52 percent of women. Only 13 percent of faculty members belonged to an ethnic minority.
The average academic year salary for a full-ranking professor at a public university in 1999-2000 was $76,200. An associate professor earned an average of $55,300; assistant professors brought in $45,600; and instructors earned $34,700. Salaries are dependent on expertise and standing. For all positions, faculty at private schools tend to earn higher salaries. The highest paying fields include medicine, law, and engineering, whereas the lowest salaries are earned by those in the humanities and education.
Higher education in the United States continues to enjoy a great deal of prestige around the world. In recent years, record numbers of foreign students have enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities. Foreign students continue to value an American business education above all other forms of learning available in this country. Until recently, engineering was the most popular subject among foreigners. This discipline, though, has fallen behind programs such as the master's of business administration.
The foreign student population in American universities and colleges is largely composed of students from China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Overall, Asians have constituted approximately two-thirds of all foreign students attending U.S. colleges and universities, whereas Europeans have accounted for 15 percent. There has also been a relatively recent increase in the number of students coming from Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East. In the late 1990s, approximately 45 percent of graduate students in American colleges and universities were foreign students, whereas foreigners accounted for one-fourth of all doctorates awarded in the United States. Observers feel that this trend will continue and that foreign students will continue to represent a significant percentage of the population of colleges and universities.
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